Physical Science Tutorials

Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space.
Atom: The basic unit of a chemical element, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Element: A pure substance consisting entirely of atoms with the same number of protons.
Compound: A substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together.
Molecule: A group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a compound.
Proton: A stable subatomic particle occurring in all atomic nuclei, with a positive electric charge.
Neutron: A subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge.
Electron: A stable subatomic particle with a negative charge, found in the electron cloud surrounding the nucleus.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Ion: An atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
Valence Electron: An electron in the outer shell of an atom that can participate in the formation of chemical bonds.
Atomic Number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, determining the chemical properties of an element.
Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus.
Periodic Table: A tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic number and electron configurations.
Chemical Bond: A lasting attraction between atoms, ions, or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds.
Covalent Bond: A chemical bond formed when two atoms share electrons.
Ionic Bond: A chemical bond formed through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Metallic Bond: A type of chemical bonding arising from the attraction between conduction electrons and metallic ions.
Acid: A substance that donates hydrogen ions and has a pH less than 7.
Base: A substance that accepts hydrogen ions and has a pH greater than 7.
pH Scale: A logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.
Solution: A homogeneous mixture composed of a solute dissolved in a solvent.
Solute: The substance that is dissolved in a solution.
Solvent: The substance in which the solute dissolves.
Solubility: The maximum amount of a solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature.
Chemical Reaction: A process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a substance.
Reactant: A substance that takes part in and undergoes change during a chemical reaction.
Product: A substance obtained from another substance through a chemical reaction.
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without undergoing permanent change.
Law of Conservation of Mass: A principle stating that mass cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Force: A push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object.
Mass: A measure of the amount of matter in an object, determining its resistance to acceleration.
Weight: The force exerted on the mass of an object by a gravitational field.
Gravity: The universal force of attraction acting between all matter.
Friction: The resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over another.
Inertia: The tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of motion.
Velocity: The speed of something in a given direction, representing a vector quantity.
Speed: The rate at which someone or something is able to move, representing a scalar quantity.
Acceleration: The rate at which an object changes its velocity.
Momentum: The quantity of motion of a moving body, measured as a product of its mass and velocity.
Net Force: The overall force acting on an object when all individual forces are added together.
Newton's First Law of Motion: An object at rest remains at rest, and an object in motion remains in motion unless acted upon by a net external force.
Newton's Second Law of Motion: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton's Third Law of Motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Work: The product of the force applied to an object and the displacement in the direction of the force.
Power: The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.
Simple Machine: A mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force.
Torque: A twisting force that tends to cause rotation.
Centripetal Force: A force acting on a body moving in a circular path that is directed toward the center of rotation.
Terminal Velocity: The constant speed a falling object reaches when the resistance of the medium prevents further acceleration.
Energy: The quantitative property that must be transferred to a physical system to perform work or heat a body.
Kinetic Energy: The energy that an object possesses due to its motion.
Potential Energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position, internal stresses, or electric charge.
Law of Conservation of Energy: A principle stating that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only altered from one form to another.
Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance.
Heat: The transfer of thermal energy from a system of higher temperature to one of lower temperature.
Conduction: The process by which heat or electricity is directly transmitted through a substance via particle collisions.
Convection: The movement caused within a fluid by the tendency of hotter, less dense material to rise and colder, denser material to sink.
Radiation: The emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or a material medium.
Specific Heat Capacity: The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
Thermodynamics: The branch of physical science dealing with the relations between heat and other forms of energy.
Entropy: A thermodynamic quantity representing the degree of disorder or randomness in an isolated system.
Phase Change: A change from one state of matter to another without a change in chemical composition.
Latent Heat: The heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapor, or a liquid into a vapor, without a change of temperature.
Absolute Zero: The lowest possible temperature where no thermal energy remains in a substance.
Wave: A disturbance that transfers energy from one place to another without transferring matter.
Medium: The substance or material that carries a mechanical wave.
Transverse Wave: A wave in which the medium moves at right angles to the direction the wave travels.
Longitudinal Wave: A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave motion.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a point on a wave from its equilibrium position.
Wavelength: The distance between successive identical points of a wave, such as crest to crest.
Frequency: The number of waves that pass a fixed point in a given unit of time, measured in Hertz.
Reflection: The bouncing back of light, heat, or sound waves when they hit a surface.
Refraction: The bending of a wave when it enters a medium where its speed is different.
Diffraction: The bending of waves around obstacles and the spreading out of waves past small openings.
Interference: The combination of two or more waves that results in a single wave of altered amplitude.
Electromagnetic Spectrum: The full range of all types of electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves to gamma rays.
Photon: A particle representing a quantum of light or other electromagnetic radiation.
Doppler Effect: An alteration in the frequency of a wave due to the relative motion of the source and the observer.
Resonance: A dramatic increase in amplitude when a periodic force is applied to a system at its natural frequency.
Electric Charge: A fundamental property of matter causing it to experience a force in an electromagnetic field.
Electric Current: The continuous flow of electric charge, measured in Amperes.
Voltage: The electrical potential difference between two points, measured in Volts.
Resistance: A material's opposition to the flow of electric current, measured in Ohms.
Ohm's Law: The principle stating that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance.
Electric Circuit: A closed conducting path in which electric current can flow.
Series Circuit: An electric circuit designed with a single path for current to flow.
Parallel Circuit: An electric circuit designed with multiple paths for current to flow.
Magnetic Field: A region around a magnetic material or moving electric charge where magnetic forces are detectable.
Electromagnetism: The physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles and magnetic fields.
Induction: The production of an electromotive force across a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field.
Crust: The thin, outermost solid shell of a rocky planet or natural satellite.
Mantle: The solid, hot region of the Earth's interior located between the crust and the core.
Core: The dense central region of the Earth, divided into a liquid outer core and a solid inner core.
Plate Tectonics: The theory explaining the structure of the earth's crust as a set of rigid plates moving slowly over the mantle.
Mineral: A naturally occurring, inorganic solid substance with a definite chemical composition and crystalline structure.
Rock Cycle: A continuous geological process by which rocks are created, transformed, destroyed, and reformed.
Atmosphere: The layers of gases surrounding the earth or another celestial planet.
Weathering: The chemical or physical breakdown of rocks and minerals at or near the Earth's surface.
Erosion: The process by which earthen materials are worn away and transported by natural forces like wind or water.
Nebula: A massive interstellar cloud of dust and gas where stars are frequently born.
Galaxy: A gravitationally bound system containing millions or billions of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter.
Big Bang Theory: The prevailing cosmological model describing the early development and expansion of the universe.
Redshift: The shifting of spectral lines toward longer wavelengths, indicating an object is moving away from the observer.
Black Hole: A region of spacetime where gravity is so intense that nothing, not even light, can escape.
Plasma: A high-energy state of matter consisting of stripped atomic nuclei and free electrons.
Bose-Einstein Condensate: A state of matter formed near absolute zero where separate atoms merge into a single quantum state.
Allotrope: Different structural forms of the same chemical element in the same physical state.
Molarity: A concentration unit expressing the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Mole: The SI unit for amount of substance, equal to Avogadro's number of particles.
Avogadro's Law: Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain identical numbers of molecules.
Boyle's Law: The principle that the pressure of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to its volume at a constant temperature.
Charles's Law: The principle that the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at a constant pressure.
Ideal Gas Law: The equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas, stated as pressure times volume equals moles times the gas constant times temperature.
Endothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction that absorbs heat energy from its immediate surroundings.
Exothermic Reaction: A chemical reaction that releases heat energy into its immediate surroundings.
Activation Energy: The minimum kinetic energy required to initiate a specific chemical reaction.
Enthalpy: The total heat content or internal energy of a thermodynamic system.
Le Chatelier's Principle: If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the disturbance.
Oxidation: The chemical process involving the loss of electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion.
Reduction: The chemical process involving the gain of electrons by an atom, molecule, or ion.
Electrolyte: A substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent.
Precipitate: An insoluble solid substance that emerges from a liquid solution during a chemical reaction.
Polymer: A large macromolecule composed of repeating structural subunits linked together by covalent bonds.
Half-life: The time required for half of the radioactive nuclei in a given sample to undergo decay.
Scalar: A physical quantity completely described by magnitude alone without direction.
Vector: A physical quantity possessing both a specific magnitude and a defined direction.
Displacement: A vector quantity representing the shortest straight-line distance from an object's initial position to its final position.
Projectile Motion: The predictable motion of an object projected into the air, subject only to acceleration by gravity.
Trajectory: The exact curved path followed by a projectile flying through space.
Static Equilibrium: A state where an object is completely at rest and net forces and torques are equal to zero.
Dynamic Equilibrium (Mechanics): A state where an object moves at a constant velocity due to zero net external force.
Normal Force: The perpendicular support force exerted by a stable surface on an object resting against it.
Tension: The pulling force transmitted axially through a string, cable, chain, or wire.
Elasticity: The physical property of a material allowing it to return to its original shape after deformation forces are removed.
Hooke's Law: The principle stating that the deformation of an elastic object is directly proportional to the applied stress.
Mechanical Advantage: The ratio of output force produced by a machine to the input force applied to it.
Efficiency: The percentage ratio of useful work output generated by a system to the total energy input.
Angular Velocity: The rate of change of angular displacement of a rotating object over time.
Angular Momentum: The rotational equivalent of linear momentum, dependent on moment of inertia and angular velocity.
Moment of Inertia: A measure of an object's rotational resistance to changes in its rate of rotation.
Escape Velocity: The minimum speed required for a non-propelled body to escape the gravitational field of a primary celestial object.
Kepler's First Law: The orbital law stating that all planets move in elliptical paths with the sun positioned at one focus.
Impulse: The total change in momentum of an object, calculated as net force multiplied by the time interval.
Joule: The standard SI unit of work or energy.
Density: The measurement of mass per unit volume of a given substance.
Pressure: The continuous force exerted perpendicular to a surface divided by the unit area.
Pascal's Principle: A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid.
Archimedes' Principle: An object immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
Buoyant Force: The upward net force exerted by a fluid on any object placed within it.
Bernoulli's Principle: An increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in internal fluid pressure.
Viscosity: A fluid property measuring its internal resistance to gradual deformation or flow thickness.
Laminar Flow: A fluid flow regime characterized by smooth, parallel layers with minimal mixing.
Turbulent Flow: A fluid flow regime characterized by chaotic property variations, mixing, and localized vortices.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are in equilibrium with each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics: The law stating that the change in internal energy of a closed system equals heat added minus work done.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: Total entropy in an isolated system always increases over time, dictating that heat flows from hot to cold.
Third Law of Thermodynamics: As the absolute temperature of a system approaches zero, the total entropy approaches a constant minimum value.
Heat Pump: A thermodynamic device that transfers heat energy from a colder environment to a warmer environment.
Thermal Expansion: The tendency of physical matter to change its dimensions, area, or volume in response to shifting temperatures.
Crest: The absolute highest point of a transverse wave cycle.
Trough: The absolute lowest point of a transverse wave cycle.
Compression: The region within a longitudinal wave where the constituent particles are closest together.
Rarefaction: The region within a longitudinal wave where the constituent particles are furthest apart.
Index of Refraction: A dimensionless number describing how fast light travels through a material relative to a vacuum.
Total Internal Reflection: The complete reflection of a light ray back into its original medium when hitting a boundary past the critical angle.
Dispersion: The physical separation of light into its individual component wavelengths when traveling through a prism.
Polarization: The process of filtering unpolarized light waves into oscillations restricted to a single orientation plane.
Constructive Interference: Wave interaction where in-phase crests align to produce an enhanced resulting amplitude.
Destructive Interference: Wave interaction where out-of-phase crests and troughs align to cancel or reduce the resulting amplitude.
Decibel: A logarithmic unit used to express the relative intensity or acoustic loudness of sound waves.
Infrasound: Acoustic sound waves possessing frequencies below the lower limit of normal human hearing.
Ultrasound: Acoustic sound waves possessing frequencies above the upper limit of normal human hearing.
Mach Number: The ratio of the speed of an object to the local speed of sound within the surrounding medium.
Coherence: A wave property where individual waves maintain a fixed, constant phase relationship over time.
Conductor: A material containing movable electric charges that easily allows the flow of electrical current.
Insulator: A material whose internal electrical charges do not move freely, strongly resisting current flow.
Semiconductor: A solid material whose electrical conductivity lies between that of a conductor and an insulator.
Superconductor: A material capable of conducting electricity with zero resistance when cooled below a critical temperature threshold.
Capacitance: The physical ability of a system or component to store an electric charge, measured in Farads.
Coulomb's Law: The law quantifying the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion operating between two localized point charges.
Lorentz Force: The total force exerted on a moving point charge by combined electric and magnetic fields.
Transformer: An electromagnetic device used to transfer electrical energy between circuits while changing voltage levels.
Generator: A machine engineered to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Motor: A machine engineered to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Nuclear Fission: A nuclear reaction where a heavy atomic nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, releasing energy.
Nuclear Fusion: A nuclear reaction where light atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing massive energy.
Alpha Particle: A radioactive decay particle composed of two protons and two neutrons, identical to a helium-4 nucleus.
Beta Particle: A high-energy electron or positron emitted during specific types of radioactive nuclear decay.
Gamma Ray: High-energy, short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation emitted by radioactive atomic nuclei.
Lithosphere: The rigid, outermost structural layer of the Earth, encompassing the crust and uppermost mantle.
Asthenosphere: The ductile upper layer of the Earth's mantle directly below the lithosphere, permitting convection.
Subduction Zone: A convergent tectonic boundary where one geological plate sinks beneath another into the mantle.
Seismic Wave: An elastic wave travelling through the earth, typically generated by earthquakes or volcanic activity.
Magma: Molten or semi-fluid rock material located beneath the Earth's surface.
Lava: Molten magma that has breached the Earth's surface via volcanic vents or fissures.
Igneous Rock: Rock formed through the direct cooling and solidification of magma or lava.
Sedimentary Rock: Rock formed via the gradual accumulation, compaction, and cementation of mineral particles over time.
Metamorphic Rock: Rock generated from the structural transformation of existing rock types via intense heat and pressure.
Coriolis Effect: The apparent deflection of moving air or water currents resulting from the rotation of the Earth.
Albedo: A measure of the reflective capacity of an astronomical body's surface.
Troposphere: The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where virtually all meteorological weather phenomena occur.
Stratosphere: The atmospheric layer located directly above the troposphere, containing the protective ozone layer.
Luminosity: The total absolute amount of electromagnetic energy emitted by a star or celestial object per unit of time.
Light-year: The astronomical distance unit equivalent to the distance light travels in one vacuum year.
Organic Chemistry: The specialized study of the structure, properties, composition, and reactions of carbon-containing chemical compounds.
Hydrocarbon: An organic compound composed exclusively of hydrogen and carbon atoms.
Alkane: A saturated hydrocarbon compound featuring only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
Alkene: An unsaturated hydrocarbon compound containing at least one carbon-carbon double bond.
Alkyne: An unsaturated hydrocarbon compound containing at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
Isomer: Chemical molecules sharing identical molecular formulas but possessing unique structural arrangements.
Functional Group: A specific arrangement of atoms within an organic molecule responsible for its characteristic chemical reactions.
Monomer: A simple molecular building block capable of bonding with others to form a polymer chain.
Carbohydrate: An organic molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically serving as an energy source.
Lipid: A broad class of organic molecules that are insoluble in water, including fats, waxes, and oils.
Amino Acid: An organic compound containing carboxyl and amino groups that serves as a building block for proteins.
Enzyme: A specialized biological protein catalyst that accelerates specific biochemical reactions inside living cells.
Electronegativity: A chemical property measuring an atom's relative tendency to attract shared bonding electrons.
Electron Affinity: The energy change that occurs when an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom to form a negative ion.
Ionisation Energy: The minimum energy required to completely remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom.
Atomic Radius: A measurement of the typical distance from the center of an atomic nucleus to its outermost electron cloud boundary.
Periodic Trend: Predictable physical and chemical property patterns observed when navigating across the periodic table.
Critical Mass: The minimum quantity of fissile material required to sustain a continuous nuclear chain reaction.
Chain Reaction (Nuclear): A self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fissions where released neutrons trigger subsequent fissions.
Transuranic Element: Any synthetic chemical element possessing an atomic number greater than 92.
Angular Displacement: The angle measured in radians through which an object rotates around a fixed axis.
Angular Acceleration: The operational rate of change of an object's angular velocity over time.
Centrifugal Force: An apparent outward inertial force experienced by an object moving along a curved or rotational path.
Radius of Gyration: The radial distance from an axis to a point where a body's mass could be concentrated without changing its inertia.
Precession: The slow, continuous change in the orientation of a rotating body's rotational axis due to external torque.
Orbital Period: The total time required for a given celestial object to complete a full orbit around another.
Aphelion: The specific point in a celestial body's orbit where it is furthest from the sun.
Perihelion: The specific point in a celestial body's orbit where it is closest to the sun.
Perigee: The specific orbital point where a satellite or the moon is closest to the Earth.
Apogee: The specific orbital point where a satellite or the moon is furthest from the Earth.
Geostationary Orbit: A circular equatorial orbit where a satellite's period matches Earth's rotation, appearing fixed over one spot.
Relativity (Special): Einstein's theory stating physical laws are uniform for non-accelerating observers and the vacuum speed of light is constant.
Relativity (General): Einstein's geometric gravity theory describing gravity as the curvature of space-time induced by mass and energy.
Time Dilation: A relative difference in elapsed time measured by clocks due to high relative velocities or gravitational variances.
Length Contraction: The physical phenomenon where a fast-moving object's length is measured to be shorter along its direction of motion.
Quark: An elementary subatomic particle that serves as the fundamental constituent of hadrons like protons and neutrons.
Lepton: An elementary half-integer spin particle that does not participate in strong nuclear forces.
Boson: A subatomic particle obeying Bose-Einstein statistics that acts as a fundamental force carrier between matter particles.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: A quantum rule stating it is impossible to simultaneously measure a particle's exact position and momentum.
Wave-Particle Duality: The fundamental quantum concept that matter and radiation display both wave-like and particle-like characteristics.
Stress: The internal restoring force operating per unit area within a solid body subjected to external forces.
Strain: The quantitative measure of material deformation representing fractional change in dimensions.
Young's Modulus: A mechanical property measuring the tensile stiffness of a solid material, defined as stress divided by strain.
Ductility: A mechanical property defining a material's capability to undergo plastic deformation into thin wires without fracturing.
Malleability: A material property allowing a solid substance to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets under compression.
Brittleness: The tendency of a material to fracture under stress with little to no prior plastic deformation.
Hardness: A material property measuring resistance to localized surface plastic deformation, scratching, or abrasion.
Thermal Conductivity: A material property quantifying its intrinsic capability to conduct and transfer heat energy.
Electrical Conductivity: A material property quantifying its operational capacity to conduct and transport electrical charge.
Amorphous Solid: A solid material lacking long-range ordered structural arrangement of its constituent atoms or molecules.
Crystalline Solid: A solid material whose component atoms or molecules are arranged in a highly ordered repeating lattice.
Semiconductor Doping: The intentional introduction of specific trace impurities into semiconductors to alter electrical properties.
Direct Current (DC): An electric current that flows continuously in a single, unwavering direction.
Alternating Current (AC): An electric current that periodically reverses direction and varies its magnitude over time.
Impedance: The total effective opposition of an electrical circuit to the flow of alternating current.
Magnetic Flux: A measurement quantifying the total magnetic field passing through a defined surface area.
Faraday's Law of Induction: The law stating that a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force within an electrical circuit.
Lenz's Law: The rule stating that an induced electric current always opposes the magnetic flux change that created it.
Dielectric: An electrical insulator capable of being polarized by an external electric field to store charge.
Ferromagnetism: The physical mechanism by which materials form permanent magnets or display strong magnetic attraction.
Mesosphere (Mantle): The deep, solid mantle region located below the asthenosphere and above the Earth's core.
Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho): The sharp structural boundary separating the Earth's crust from the underlying mantle layer.
Paleomagnetism: The scientific study of the historical record of Earth's magnetic field preserved within ancient magnetic minerals.
Continental Drift: The historical hypothesis describing the slow, relative horizontal migration of Earth's continental landmasses.
Seismograph: A scientific instrument used to detect, measure, and record ground vibrations caused by seismic waves.
Epicenter: The localized point on Earth's surface located vertically above an earthquake's underground focus point.
Liquefaction: A phenomenon where shaking causes saturated, unconsolidated soil to temporarily behave like a liquid.
Aquifer: An underground layer of permeable rock or sediment capable of storing and transmitting groundwater.
Water Table: The upper boundary surface beneath which underground soil and rock are completely saturated with water.
Infiltration: The physical process by which water situated on the ground surface penetrates downwards into the soil.
Transpiration: The process where moisture is carried through plants from roots to small pores, changing to vapor.
Sublimation: The phase change where a solid transitions directly into a gas without entering a liquid state.
Deposition (Phase Change): The phase change where a gas transitions directly into a solid without entering a liquid state.
Greenhouse Effect: The atmospheric trapping of solar heat due to gases absorbing and emitting infrared radiation.
Ozone Layer: A stratospheric region possessing high concentrations of ozone that absorbs harmful solar ultraviolet radiation.
Thermal Inversion: An atmospheric condition where a layer of warm air traps cooler air near the Earth's surface.
Humidity: A measurement of the total concentration of water vapor present within the atmosphere.
Dew Point: The atmospheric temperature threshold at which air becomes saturated, causing water vapor to condense into droplets.
Meteorology: The scientific study focusing on atmospheric processes, dynamics, and weather forecasting mechanisms.
Geothermal Gradient: The steady rate of temperature increase encountered with increasing depth within the Earth's interior.
Asteroid: A small, rocky object orbiting the sun, predominantly located within the asteroid belt.
Comet: A celestial object composed of ice and dust that develops a visible tail when orbiting near the sun.
Meteoroid: A small rocky or metallic debris body moving through space, smaller than an asteroid.
Meteor: The bright streak of light generated when a meteoroid vaporizes due to friction in Earth's atmosphere.
Meteorite: A solid remnant of a meteoroid that survives atmospheric passage to strike a planet's surface.
Solar Wind: A continuous stream of high-energy charged particles flowing outwards from the sun's corona.
Magnetosphere: The spatial region around an astronomical body where its magnetic field dictates charged particle motion.
Astronomical Unit (AU): A distance unit defined as the mean distance separating the Earth from the Sun.
Parsec: An astronomical unit of distance equivalent to approximately three point two six light-years.
Exoplanet: A planet situated outside our solar system that orbits a foreign star.
Main Sequence: A major stellar evolution category where stars actively fuse hydrogen into helium within their cores.
White Dwarf: The faint, dense stellar remnant left behind after a low-mass star exhausts its nuclear fuel.
Neutron Star: An ultra-dense collapsed stellar core composed almost exclusively of tightly packed neutrons.
Pulsar: A rapidly rotating, highly magnetized neutron star emitting periodic beams of electromagnetic radiation.
Supernova: A catastrophic, high-energy stellar explosion marking the death of a massive star.
Event Horizon: The boundary perimeter surrounding a black hole past which the escape velocity exceeds light speed.
Singularity: An infinitely dense point in space-time where standard known laws of physical science break down entirely.
Dark Matter: An invisible, hypothetical form of matter inferred to exist via its observed gravitational effects on visible matter.
Dark Energy: A theoretical, uniform force permeating space that drives the accelerating expansion of the universe.
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB): Weak, uniform electromagnetic radiation filling space that remains as a relic of the Big Bang.

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